"INTERFAITH ENCOUNTERS IN INDONESIA'
(With Emphasis on Christians and Muslims Relations)

Indonesia, the fifth most populous nation in the world, claims more Muslims than any other country. The 1992 population is estimated to become 187.6 million, and approximately 87.5%, or 164.2 million, will be Muslim. This is more or less same with all the Muslims in the Middle East. 8-9%, or 16.8 millions, are Christian; the reminder embrace Hinduism, Buddhism, or indigenous religion. Indonesia is a nation of islands that extend over 3,000 miles from east to west and over 1,100 miles from north to south. Of all the countries in the region of Southeast Asia, it was together with the Philippines - also under European domination the longest. A brief summary of its history will set the stage for understanding the interfaith encounters in the life of Indonesia.

For our purposes, the historical background of Indonesia begins with the coming of Indian traders in the twelfth century. They established permanent Muslim settlements on the westernmost islands, which were ruled by Hindu princes, the Sri Vijaya empire (7th-12th century).

One of the earliest Islamic settlements began in 1204, in Aceh in North Sumatra. From there Islam spread to Java, over which Muslim sultans ruled by the end of the sixteenth century.

The importance of these islands for trade and commerce did not pass unnoticed by European nations. By 1292 Marco Polo had already visited Indonesia, particularly North Sumatra, on his return from China, met with a Muslim population in the town of Perlak. The Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511. This marks the beginning of colonial presence in the islands and the introduction of Roman Catholicism to the area. Portuguese control continued until the coming of the Dutch East India Company in 1605. In the early nineteenth century the Dutch colonial government replaced the bankrupt company. By 1910 this government had control of all of the East Indies. The Westernization of the islands had begun. Dutch rule finally ended with a defeat by the Indonesians during the struggle for independence (1945-1949) which followed the harsh Japanese occupation of 1942-1945.

With independence, the modern period of Indonesian history begins. From 1950 to 1959 a European style parliamentary democracy under the leadership of President Sukarno was tried because this government did not provide security, stability, and national unity, it was dissolved in 1959 by Sukarno, who established a "guided democracy" and "guided economy" operating under a constitution drafted in 1945. The next six years likewise failed to bring national unity, political stability, or economic growth. An attempted coup in 1965 was quickly put down by the armed forces and attributed by them to the Communist Party. This led to widespread killings and disappearances of those charged with being affiliated or in sympathy with the Communists. As a result of all this, Sukarno lost power, and in 11 March 1966 the reins of government were transferred to General Suharto, who had led the army in putting down the coup. The army became the real center of power. The ensuing period was labeled by its leaders the "New Order," the "Old Order" being the period of Sukarno's rule, 1950-1965.

The determinative event in the history relations between Christians and Muslims (and other faiths) was the adoption of the Pancasila (Five Pillars). They are: belief in unitary deity, nationalism, humanitarianism, representative democracy, and social justice for all Indonesians. The formulation of the first pillar avoided giving preference to any one particular religion. As a result, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism are all recognized as official religions of Indonesia. Enacted by consensus in August 1945 as the foundation of the Indonesian state, the Pancasila has continued in force until the present. In 1985, the New Order Government expanded the scope and authority of the Pancasila to make it the sole basis of social and political activity of all mass organizations, including those under the banner of religion. However, this authority does not apply to narrowly defined religious organizations like churches, mosques, and temple congregations.

"The community of those who submit to the will of God."

After taking root in Indonesia in the twelfth century, the Muslim community grew gradually and steadily, following the expansion of trade and political power throughout the islands. Once established, Islamization generally proceeded peaceably though accompanied by a constant struggle between the principles of Islam and the deep-rooted Javanism, which was a synthesis of Hinduism and Buddhism with indigenous religion. The coming of the Portuguese and the Dutch did not halt the expansion of Islam. If anything, Western rule and Dutch colonial policies that kept religious communities relatively separate may have aided in its expansion.

In the early 1900s, Muslims began to form Islamic organizations of various kinds. Some like Serikat Islam (1905), later the Partai Serikat Islam Indonesia, the United Indonesian Islamic Party (PSII, established in 1930), were committed to Indonesian nationalism. Others pursued different objectives. The Muhammadiyah, founded in 1912 as a nonpolitical social organization, stressed the adaptation of Islamic principles in order to meet the challenge of Western secular thinking. It represented those people now identified as "modernists." In the early 1920s the Persatuan Islam (Persis) was organized to teach and spread Islam. The Nahdatul Ulama (Revival of the Scribes) was established in 1926 as the political forum of the traditionalists and advocates of traditional Islamic values in the developing
national life of Indonesia as it became modernized.

In the mix of the organizations just identified, there are represented the divisions within the Muslim community over the way in which Islam is to be practiced. The modernists and the traditionalists are two of the contenders. A third consisted of those Muslims who were secular, Western educated, and politically oriented civil servants and intelligentsia. From this group came many leaders of the nationalist movement.

The traditionalists and the modernists were concerned with the Islamic character of Indonesia and with Muslims participation in the affairs of state. These groups and their concerns are the key to understanding Muslim political activity in Indonesia today. Even before World War II Muslim organizations began to formulate political thought to advance their concerns. The Japanese invasion ended these efforts. But with independence in 1945, the Pancasila was adopted, frustrating once again the desire of some Muslims for an Islamic state.

When the 1965 coup was attempted, Muslims cooperated with the military to eliminate the Communists and their sympathizers, expecting to gain for themselves the political power that the Communists had enjoyed under Sukarno's rule. The army, however, rebuffed them in the interest of defending the Pancasila. As a result, many Muslims feel that they, as the majority community, have been deprived of a political role that is rightfully theirs.

Several other considerations also aid in understanding the Muslim community. Since Independence, the Muslims' sense of belonging to the world community of Islam has grown markedly. This has resulted from their increasing participation in the Hajj, their importing and translating the writings of Muslim modernists and revivalists of Pakistan and the Middle East, the influx of foreign money to help build mosques and Islamic institutions and to support various outreach programs, and contacts with Muslims of other countries made by those studying and traveling abroad.

Apart from the political positions just outlined, the Javanese Muslim community exhibits other differences. There are the more orthodox Muslims called Santri, the more heterodox, syncretistic Muslims called Abangan, and the aristocratic intelligentsia called Priyayi. The traditionalists are more likely to be represented by the Santri group (though many younger Santri are modernists), while secular nationalists are found mostly in the Abangan and Priyayi groups.

There is an increased emphasis upon da'wah, stimulated by the impact of the materialistic, secular values of the West upon the country, which many Indonesians feel has been encouraged by the development policies of the government, by widely publicized reports about the "flood of conversions" to Christianity in Indonesia following the coup of 1965, and by the unwillingness of the government to halt Christian attempts at conversion.

"The community of those who follow
Christ."

Perhaps the greatest problem facing the Christian community in Indonesia is the impression that others have of it as a foreign element in Indonesian society. Unlike Islam, Christianity was introduced and is perceived to have grown under the umbrella of colonial power. The establishments of the Roman Catholic church, originally primarily in the Moluccas, coincided with the arrival in that area of the Portuguese at the beginning of the sixteenth century. When the Dutch trading interests replaced the Portuguese, the door was opened for the introduction of Reformed Protestantism, whose chief enemy in Europe at the time was the Roman Catholic Church. Muslim rulers did not welcome the coming of Christianity. Not wanting religious problems to interfere with their trading interests, initially the Dutch rulers remained, for the most part, neutral with respect to religious issues. For example, Christian missionaries were allowed to come but their work was generally limited to areas where indigenous religion, rather than Islam or Hinduism, was dominant. The Muslim community benefitted from this policy because it allowed Islam to expand unopposed into the interior sections of Java and Sumatra. In the latter part of the colonial period, Dutch officials became more favorably disposed toward the Christian church. The Dutch government had subsidized the salaries of pastors and teachers of the Protestant Church of the Indies from the beginning, however.

The 1980 statistical picture shows a Roman Catholic Church of 3.8 million people, or 29.5% of the Christian population of Indonesia; 55 conciliar Protestant churches, joined together in the Communion of Churches in Indonesia and consisting of 7.1 million people, or 55%; Pentecostal churches with a membership of 1 million, or 7.75%; and nonconciliar, non-Pentecostal churches, which consider themselves to be "evangelical" rather than "ecumenical", with nearly 1 million, or 7.75%. One half of the evangelical churches were established by foreign missionaries after 1965, with some of their membership coming from the older church groups.

In the pre-independence period, a number of Christians were deeply involved in the nationalist movement. This involvement was related to the struggle of many Protestant churches to obtain autonomy from the state supported church of the Dutch, and also independence from the domination of Western missionaries and Western church organizations. Their struggle was aided by the Japanese invasion, at which time Western presence was eliminated.

When independence came, a significant segment of the Christian community participated fully in the development of the new nation. Not only had it fought the Dutch in the struggle for independence, it gave its support to the governments that have followed. For example, Christians, as over against the Muslim Community, generally advocated the Pancasila. In later years, the church, though continuing to cooperate with the government, did voice disagreement with government attempt in 1978 and 1979 to restrict the propagation of religion and to limit or control overseas assistance to religious institutions. As a result, the government has not carried through with these attempts. Then in 1985 the church, along with Muslim organizations, expressed concern about the application of the Pancasila to religious organizations.

In 1950 the churches, concerned for the unity of the church and of their country, formed the Council of Churches in Indonesia. Under the leadership of this council, the churches established ties with the World Council of Churches and have remained active participants in that body even at the risk of being accused once again of being foreign. As evidence of this growing ecumenism, the conciliar Protestant churches and the Roman Catholic Church have come closer together, working side by side on many issues.

This growing spirit of unity has been challenged since 1965 by the dramatic increase in the presence and activities of foreign (not just Western) conservative evangelists and parachurch agencies. Their work has offended older churches because they have lost members to the new missionary churches. Their missionaries have offended other religious groups by their ignorance of the situation, their aggressive, insensitive approach, and their "Christian" chauvinism.

In addition to these concerns, the churches have been critical of the materialistic and immoral aspects of the modernization process. This agrees with much of the Muslim criticism of Westernization.

Finally, Christians are concerned about any attempt on the part of Muslims to change Indonesia into an Islamic state or to make the Shari'ah law normative. Their fears in this matter have been influenced by the memory of the Dar-ul-Islam rebellion in 1950, which was motivated by the desire of some Muslims to establish an Islamic state. They also fear what they perceive to be the impact of Islamic revivalism upon some Muslim groups.

Relationships Between Christians and Muslims

Muslims and Christians in Indonesia have, for many years, been adversaries. This was caused in part by their ignorance of each other, an ignorance fostered by the Dutch colonial policy that kept the two faith communities separate; they did not really know each other, though in some regions they lived side by side peaceably, when external pressures did not interfere. Due to the largely negative experience of the two faith communities in the Middle East and Europe (since the time of Islam invasion to Europe and the Crusade), which was carried to Indonesia by the Muslims and Christians who came, the Muslim and Christian communities that grew in the archipelago inherited attitudes of antagonism, mistrust and fear toward one another. The "we-they" attitude grew sharper and more negative in the Moluccas, North Sumatra and Kalimantan, among other regions between 1550 and 1850, with the eruption of clashes within and between ethnic groups indirectly related to policies and behavior of colonial powers. The same thing happened on Java in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Thus the Republic of Indonesia began its life with a substantial heritage of negative feelings between Christians and Muslims. From the Muslim point of view, Christians were the favorites, at Muslim expense, of both the colonial and national governments, in spite of these governments' declared neutrality with respect to religions. During the first fifteen years of the Old Order, fanatical guerrilla forces in West and Central Java and in South Sulawesi waged terrorist attacks with the aim of establishing an Islamic state in the new republic. Since Islamic political parties did not repudiate these efforts, though they did not support them either, the clear impression was given (to those non-Muslims susceptible to it) that their future was threatened by a militant Muslim community committed to changing the foundations of the Indonesian state.

Relationship in the period of the New Order have been affected by the response to the coup of September 30, 1965, which was attributed to the Communist Party. Shortly after the coup, the Communist Party was outlawed and all Indonesians were advised to choose the religion they wished to adhere to, since to have no religion was to be considered a communist, and all suspected communists were either hunted down to be killed or imprisoned. The result was a large-scale movement of people into Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity. Dramatic reporting by Western media of mass conversions of Indonesians to the Christian faith aroused strong negative reactions within the Muslim community. This, in turn, led to attempts by the government in the late 1960s to get the two communities to agree to cease using the other as a target in their propagation. This attempt failed on the grounds that it constrained both faiths from carrying out their religious duty.

Aware of Muslim feelings about the constraints imposed on their participation in government, the New Order has sought to demonstrate to Muslim groups the government concern for them by giving, for example, through the Department of Religion, financial support to Muslim institutions of higher education and for religious instructions. Since Christian instructions have not benefited equally, some Christians feel that the department is strongly biased toward the Muslim community.

Because both the Christian faith and Islam are concerned to propagate their beliefs, the relationship between Christian mission and Islamic da'wah is of importance to the two communities. The regulating factor in this relationship has been the government, which has ruled that relations between the religions must handled in such a way as to avoid open contradictions in the efforts of religious adherents to carry out their calling to mission and da'wah. In this connection, the expression "Religious communities must create harmonious relations in society" has become popular in recent years. As a result, the relationship between mission and da'wah has not been a serious issue within Indonesia.

The unique aspect of the interfaith situation is the active participation of the government in religious affairs as a "neutral" party. Its concern is for peace, harmony, and stability. The country will not advance and develop if it is disrupted by internal strife. In response to this concern many Christian and Muslim leaders have worked together to achieve this harmony. Christians have emphasized themes of tolerance, dialogue, and cooperation in an effort to encourage the church to participate positively in the achievement of harmony. Some Muslim leaders have initiated similar efforts within their own communities. In addition, numerous interfaith consultations have been held between Christian and Muslim leaders. Further, these leaders have attended the international dialogue programs sponsored by the World Council of Churches and other agencies. It is this development which is a harbinger of what the future of relations between the two groups might be. With the right kind of government involvement and encouragement, Christians and Muslims in Indonesia might become an example for others who in their own situations look forward to the development of better relations between the religious communities.

Possibilities and Hope

The following paragraphs regarding prospects for the future for Muslim-Christian relations was written for an Indonesia case study.

     1. Islam-Christian relations in Indonesia, as evident from their history, have been characterized by darkness. A Muslim Teacher once told his students, "Every time you meet another person and there you see your brother or sister, darkness will disappear and light will dawn." The first possibility and hope that can be put forward is that beginning now we should write the history of Islam-Christian relations in Indonesia as a history of brother /sisterhood. The brothers and sisters have an identical direction in their struggles, that is, to oppose human injustice and poverty, to wipe out division and oppression, and to fertilize the growth of peace and liberty.

     2. Brother/sisterhood does not mean living without differences of opinion or perspective. Such differences must be met so that together can be discovered the "rule of perspective". Such differences must be met so that together can be discovered the "rule of the game" for living together in both the micro and macro spheres.

     3. The next possibility and hope related to da'wah, evangelization and dialogue. Da'wah and evangelization simply mean giving witness to one's faith both by life or actions and by words. Persons of faith cannot hide the riches of their faith. Those riches long to be expressed, communicated, so that others can also enjoy them. Da'wah and evangelization are not a compelling but rather an offering and inviting. Therefore, da'wah and evangelization must always take place in honest and respectful dialogue with those to whom da'wah and evangelization are addressed.

That sort of dialogue should also take place between the Muslim and Christian communities both on the theological-rational level and on the spiritual-mystical level. Both the rational and spiritual dimensions enrich persons to be more able to live their own faith on a deeper plane. In that the Islamic and Christian communities and all others can become colleagues on the road towards God.

     4. Living out da'wah, evangelization and dialogue of the sort just described demands of us a humble, honest and open attitude. The implementation of mature da'wah, evangelization and dialogue cannot take place on an attitudinal foundation of shallowness and indifference, or of closeness and rigidity. A shallow, indifferent attitude says that my religion and my faith are true, that other religions and faiths are also true. Both are happenstance; so basically I can go this way, or that, either posing no problem. A closed, rigid attitude stubbornly holds that my religion and faith are most true; there is no salvation outside my religion and faith; and there is nothing that can enrich my religion and faith.

A humble, honest, open attitude believes firmly that my religion and faith are the most true; nevertheless, it does not reject God's saving work outside my religion and faith. Nor does such an attitude lead to indifference, drifting, without choosing and deciding, as if all are the same and happenstance. A humble, honest, open spirit respects choice and decision that are free and honest. And choice and decision that are free and honest are also valued by my God.

     5. Finally, all movements of brother/sisterhood that are genuinely deep are embraced by the Lord, the Lover and Compassionate One of all persons. That embrace of God becomes clear and is felt in prayer. Thus the brother/sisterhood of the Christian and Muslim communities must be marked by the ability to pray for one another.

Christian-Muslim relation in Indonesia and everywhere will have a good future, if (i) leaders and governments will stop using religion as a means to building or defending political power; (ii) if enough Muslims and Christians really want better relations; (iii) if Christian and Muslim theologians will carry out the task of exploring, deepening and broadening their own faith in honest, humble and open dialogue with one another; (iv) if and whenever Muslims and Christians, particularly youth and women, will join in improving the quality of life for all, especially for the poor, dispossessed and marginalized persons in their societies; and (v) if Muslims and Christians will take their faith with the utmost seriousness and seek in all things to do God's will and God's will alone.


The Draft of the Declaration of Indonesian Independence

Prepared by the Sub-Committee, and approved by the Investigative Body for the Preparation of Independent Indonesia in its plenary meeting on July 10, 1945 from 10:00-16:16 hours. See: Mohammad Yamin, Naskah Persiapan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, Djilid I (Documents on the Preparation of the Constitution of 1945, Volume I) (Djakarta: Jajasan Prapantja, 1959), 273-284.

Truly, freedom is the right of all nations, and therefore, colonialism throughout the world must be eradicated, because it is not compatible with (the principle of) humanitarianism and (the sense of) justice. We, the people of Indonesia have had a glorious and happy history in the past as an independent nation with our independent fatherland and free state whose territory included the entire Indonesian archipelago as far as Papua, indeed reaching the Asian mainland to the border of Siam; an independent nation, which in peaceful and friendly relations with other independent nations in mainland Asia, welcomed generosity any peoples who came (to us).

The arrival of the Western nations in Indonesia brought catastrophe to us, the Indonesian people. For more than three centuries we the people of Indonesia were confined under the power of the Dutch by their evil politics (that): divided our unity, insulted and humiliated our dignity, and exploited our wealth in the interest of the Dutch people themselves.

That evil exploitation could not remain forever hidden in the world where there was increasing fierce competitions within Western imperialism to grab the whole world's wealth. And gradually, there arose among us, the people of Indonesia a most tremendous spirit of opposition which never was and never will be extinguished. There seethed again in our hearts, as the people of Indonesia, a spirited determination to rise up again as a free people in an independent nation, giving birth to a disciplined movement in the Indonesian people, based on the ideals of justice and humanitarianism, to demand acknowledgement of the right of independence of every nation. The growth, widening and deepening of this movement can not be prevented, can not be stopped, among every strata and all echelons of the Indonesian people, no matter how strong,
how wild, how furious the power of the Dutch government in trying to prevent and stamp it out.

At the very moment the indication of that movement peaked, as if like the moment of the birth of a child from its mother's womb, the Lord the Almighty turned a corner in the world's journey, shifting the balance of power in the world, particularly in the Pacific region, to predestine that birth.

The Japanese Imperium's demands, in contradiction to the goals of Western imperialism, in contradiction to the goals of Western imperialism, namely the demand for the right to free Asia based on the equal rights of nations, together with a policy which they firmly and appropriately implemented, aimed at the development of independent states and a Greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere, finally caused the Japanese Imperium to declare war against the United States and England. This Greater East Asia War, that coincided with the peak of the independence movement of the Indonesian and other Asian peoples, came at the culminating point of the independence struggle of all peoples on the mainland and the archipelagos of Asia.

Acknowledging and honoring the excellence of the intention and goal of the Japanese Imperium, each nation in the Greater East Asia region, based on a common defense, is obligated to contribute its full energies with the most wholehearted determination to that common struggle, as the firmest guarantee of the salvation of the independence of each.

And now, the struggle of the Indonesian independence movement has come to a happy moment bringing the people of Indonesia safety and tranquility to the main gate of an independent, unified, sovereign, just, and prosperous Indonesia, which lives as a true member in the family spirit of Greater East Asia. In front of the gate of that Indonesian State, we, the people of Indonesia pay our tribute and gratitude to all freedom heroes/heroines who died.

Thanks to the blessing (and) mercy of Almighty God, (and based) on all reasons (set forth) above, moved by the noble ideal of being responsible for our own destiny of a free honorable and honored national life, we, the people of Indonesia hereby
 

DECLARE OUR INDEPENDENCE.

In the name of God, the Love and Caring (One)

Preamble

In order to form a Government of an Indonesian State that (might) protect the whole people and the entire territory of Indonesia, to promote the life of the Greater East Asia family, and to participate in the realization of a world order based on freedom, peace, and social justice, the independence of the Indonesian nation is thus formed in an Indonesian State Constitution, manifested in the form of democratic Republic of Indonesia, based on (the principle of) Lordship, with the obligation to carry out the Islamic law (syari'a) for its adherents, following the principle of a just and civilized humanity, the unity of Indonesia, peoplehood guarded by the spirit of wisdom in (the forms of) deliberation (and) representation, and the realizing social justice for the whole people of Indonesia.




NOTES

1.  Muslim = one who submits to the will of God; is one who practices or is a doer of  Islam.

2.  Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca - the fifth pillar of Islam. The other pillars are: shahadah, the bearing witness to the unity of God and the prophethood Muhammad - the first pillar; salat, worship in the form of prayer, five times daily - the second pillar; zakat, almsgiving - the third pillar; and sawm, fasting (abstaining from food, drink, sexual intercourse during daylight hours in the month of Ramadan) - the fourth pillar of Islam.

3.  The call to faithful obedience to God; used by some to identify Muslim "missionary" activity.

4.  The way or the divine path of true obedience to God; the large body of legal tradition which informs the community about the nature of the faithfulness that God requires of it.