New Century: Age of Conflict

Judo Poerwowidagdo¹

1. Terrorism and Conflicts of Nations

1.1 The twenty-first century marked the beginning of the new millennium, the third millennium. Many historians have noted that a change from one millennium to another brings significant events, which impact the whole world, and not only the region where the events take place. The new century began with a very serious event that will characterize it as the Age of Conflict. The attack on the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001 by suicidal terrorists using regular commercial airplanes shook not only the United States' government and its people, but also the rest of the world. Thousands of people died during that horrible and atrocious attack. Not only citizens of the United States of America who became victims of this attack, but also citizens of many other countries. The event of 911 (nine one-one), as it is now known, proved that the security of even the only superpower of the world is very vulnerable to terrorists' attack. If the security system of the most powerful nation in the world could be attacked, then there is no more secure place in the world.

1.2 The action committed by the terrorists against the United States' symbols of powers - i.e. the World Trade Center (symbolizing economic power) and the Pentagon (symbolizing military power) - provoked a very harsh and quick reaction by the USA. The Taliban, then official government of Afghanistan, was accused of harboring the leader of the Al-Qaeda terrorist movement, namely Osama bin Laden, who was believed to be the mastermind of the attacks against the USA. Afghanistan was severely "punished" by the USA and its allies, especially the United Kingdom. The US and its allies attacked Afghanistan until the Taliban government was rendered powerless and destroyed. The result of this reaction by the US government was the collapse of the Taliban rule and a new government was established in Kabul. However, besides this change of government, the attack on Afghanistan also caused the suffering of the Afghan people. The common people who suffered under the Taliban's regime now had to suffer under US bombardments. After the Talibans left, the new government had to rebuild the country, which was severely destroyed during the American bombardment.

1.3 The terrorist attacks on the symbols of power of the USA has become a very sensitive issue in international relations. US declared "war" on terrorism, and has been attacking possible sources of terrorists around the world. US accused that the Al-Qaeda movement headed by Osama bin Laden supports this terrorism. US also accused that certain countries with Islamic government or Muslim majority population are involved either directly or indirectly with terrorist movements. This kind of blanket accusation has negative repercussions in the Islamic world. A lot of protests against US policy on security have been lodged, but the US has continued on this line of policy. One may wonder whether this is the sign of what Samuel Huntington called "the clash of civilizations".

1.4 The new century began with a major terrorism. Counter-terrorism does not eliminate terrorism itself, but adds to it. The people of Afghanistan were already terrorized by the action (bombings) of the US government, justified as fighting against terrorism. Terrorism is a form of violent conflict. Conflicts of interest among nations that are not dealt with properly can and usually end up as violent wars. Different interests among nations in this world have caused so many conflicts among these nations. Even before the end of the second millennium, within the last decade of the 20th century, we witnessed so many wars among nations, such as the Gulf War, war in Bosnia-Herzegovina, former Yugoslavia, Kosovo, and Albania. These wars have added to the continuing violent conflict in the Middle East between Palestinians, struggling for their independence, and Israelis who continue their occupation of Palestinians lands. We have also seen the barbaric killing and genocides in Rwanda. The wars in Angola and Mozambique, Sudan, Ethiopia are just a few examples of many others in that part of the world. These and many other armed conflicts continue to characterize the world as the twenty-first century progresses. History will note that the twenty-first century is full of violent conflicts among nations and even among communities within many nations, in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Europe as well.

1.5 We in Asia have also suffered the consequences of many protracted conflicts happening in several of our countries. Sri Lanka has not been able to fully settle the disagreements between the Tamil Elam and the Government, even after so many years of armed conflict. Thousands of lives have been lost, and the destruction of properties is immeasurable and yet signs of hope for a peaceful settlement remain evasive. The relationship of India and Pakistan continues to be tense and unfriendly, to say the least. Political differences have not been resolved. Troops enforcement on the borders of the two countries increased the possibility of an open and violent conflict between two nations. Both countries recently have even tested their most destructive arsenal, the launching of their missiles, capable of carrying multiple warheads.

1.6 At the same time, within each country, there have been violent clashes among different communities for various reasons, mostly for religious differences. In Pakistan, different Islamic factions fight one another, and some Christians have become victims of violent attacks by radical Muslim groups. In India, Hindu fundamentalists have attacked other communities, both Muslim and Christian communities. Since 1998, after the fall of the New Order regime under the leadership of former President Suharto, Indonesia has experienced violent conflicts in many of its islands. This phenomenon has never happened before, at least not at the current scale. People who were generally gentle and peaceful are now becoming brutal and violent. They have "suddenly" become aggressive to such an extent that even a minor conflict can trigger major ethnic wars that can kill thousands of people and injure hundreds of thousands more, physically and psychologically. The continuing battle between some ethnic groups of different religious affiliations has turned over one million people into internally displaced persons (IDPs). Apart from ethnic differences, religious differences have also become the "reason" for violent conflicts. In Indonesia, conflict between local people and the central government, especially with the armed forces of the government, also features in the total picture of conflicts in the country. The Aceh province in northern part of Sumatra Island and West Papua province has been struggling for independence for more than two or three decades. And yet it will be clear that no President, no Government, and no military Chief of Staff will ever agree to let the Republic of Indonesia crumble because of separatist movements. This of course was in view of the nation's recent experience of East Timor.

1.7 Under the leadership of President B. J. Habibie, the Indonesian government agreed to hold a referendum in East Timor in September 1999, giving opportunity to the people of East Timor to express their wishes, either to remain integrated with the Republic of Indonesia or to be independent. The referendum was held under the international committee on referendum with supervision by the United Nations. The result of the referendum was clear: majority of the people of East Timor wanted to be independent. After the referendum, the Indonesian government had to leave the region, and was replaced by the United Nations Temporary Administration on East Timor (UNTAET) until a new government was established (Timor Lorosae or Timor Leste). Timor Leste or Timor Lorosae is now an independent country, the closest neighboring country of Indonesia. In September 2002, it became the newest member (No. 191) of the United Nations. President B. J. Habibie was strongly criticized and blamed for the loss of East Timor as a province of Indonesia. That loss was also due to international pressure, especially from the United States of America, Australia and the European community. Human rights violations by the Indonesian government, represented especially by its armed forces, were cited as the main reason why these powerful nations pressured the Indonesian government to grant independence to East Timor. The same pressure was actually received by the Indonesian government to take over East Timor in 1975 when the Portuguese left its colonial territory and civil war was going on. At that time, the Fretilin (Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor), the communist-oriented party, was gaining advantages in the civil war, while other parties, such as the Apodeti (Timorese Popular Democratic Association), and the UDT (Timorese Democratic Union) were losing grounds. They requested the Indonesian government to intervene. The government of President Suharto, which was strongly anti-communist, gladly responded to the request to help the losing parties. This was done especially after the Indonesian government received approval and support from the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia.

1.8 The case of East Timor is different from the other two cases of vertical conflicts in Indonesia, namely in Aceh and West Papua. From the historical perspectives, both Aceh and West Papua are integral parts of the Republic of Indonesia. The Indonesian people under the leadership of Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared her independence on the 17th of August 1945 during a vacuum of power after the surrender of the Japanese government to the Allied Nations, and before the Allied forces returned to Indonesia. The proclamation of independence included all territories of former Dutch East Indies, from Sabang, the northern tip of Sumatra Island in the province of Aceh, to Merauke, the southeastern most part of West Papua. Internationally, these two provinces have always been accepted as part of the Republic of Indonesia. The United Nations also accepted this fact. Therefore, the struggle of the people in Aceh and in West Papua to be independent from Indonesia is considered to be separatist movements. Their struggle does not merit the support of the international community, regardless of the grave human rights violations committed by the government and the armed forces of the Republic of Indonesia. From the perspective of West Papuans who want an independent ztate, West Papua was betrayed by the Dutch and the Indonesian governments as well as by the United Nations. The New York Agreement of 1962, between the Indonesian and the Dutch governments supported by the United Nations, gave the Indonesian government sovereignty over West Papua. The Papuans are now calling for a review of this historical fact, asking that history should be straightened. Unless satisfactory solutions to these areas of conflict can be reached in the next few years, it will continue and become the most difficult protracted conflict to be resolved.

1.9 In other countries of Asia such as Myanmar, Cambodia, and the Philippines, armed struggle of some members of their communities continues to make their governments vulnerable. Muslim groups in Southern Philippines with their Moro Islamic Liberation Front continue to fight against the government in Manila. Karen movements in the hills of Myanmar (Burma) are still fighting the Burmese military junta government in Yangon. Reasons of different religious affiliations and, in many cases, also of different ethnic identities have been used to cover the real reasons for conflict, namely unjust social system and structures in these countries. Unequal distribution of power, privileges and resources, or unjust judicial and social system and differing values have been the real causes of such community conflicts. Possibility of open violent conflict is always lurking in the horizon. It would not be easy to overcome this violence.

1.10 Other potential violent conflicts in Asia can be mentioned here. The Korean Peninsula is one, with tension between North and South Korea since the end of the Korean War in 1952. The fact that after 50 years of separation the two sides have not come to a full peaceful agreement raises questions whether they will ever be reunited. The role of the superpower, USA, is crucial here. Unless the interest of the United States, a major stakeholder, is given adequate consideration, no solution worked out by North and South Korean governments seems to be possible. North and South Korea must learn lessons from West and East Germany. The reunification of Germany was possible because it was preceded by the demise of the Soviet Union, a major stakeholder in the division of East and West Germany.

1.11 If we now turn to the Middle East, we should realize that the conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians goes back to biblical times. With this fact, combined with the modern alliance of the US and Israel against the Palestinian people who are mostly Muslims backed by most of the Arab (Islamic) nations, there is no wonder that this conflict seems to be eternal. Although it is generally known that the Middle East conflict is basically a conflict of resources and power, yet religious symbolism and overtones also characterize this age-old conflict. Yet, the recent destruction caused by this conflict is beyond the imagination of the people a millennium ago.

1.12 Conflict among African nations is nothing new to the world. The so-called South African "miracle" is actually no miracle at all. How did the peaceful transition from the system of apartheid to the democratic system of government in South Africa, from the predominantly white minority rule backed by military and economic power of the apartheid government to the black majority rule of the democratic government under the ANC? It was possible only after the persistent work and struggle of so many people and the leadership of such states-people as Mr. Nelson Mandela, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and many others. With the sacrifices of so many black and colored people, the transition was almost bloodless. Yet after only a few years later, we witnessed the sordid, barbaric genocide in Rwanda happening in front of our eyes (through the TV lenses). The killing of hundreds of thousands of Tutsis by the Hutus and vice versa should remind us of the vulnerability and fragility of the human race. Only a few years before we witnessed the violent conflicts in Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan.

1.13 Such atrocities do not happen only in Africa and Asia. It happened in Eastern Europe, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Albania. Apparently humankind has not learned from lessons of the holocaust just over half a century ago. These facts and the millions of other domestic violence happening daily in the homes have caused great concerns to the ecumenical movement at the global level.

1.14 The World Council of Churches through its Central Committee Meeting in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1994 launched the Program to Overcome Violence (POV) to deal with the increasing violent communities all around the globe. The WCC Eighth Assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1998 confirmed this program and declared the Decade to Overcome Violence (DOV). This declaration of the "Decade to Overcome Violence" calls on churches everywhere in the world to work for peaceful solutions to the increasing number of community and national conflicts. It is not only the violence committed in the public sphere that churches are concerned about, but also domestic violence which is common among so many households, including Christian households. In many cases, domestic violence is covered up even by the victims for various reasons. When violence is publicly known or recognized, the victims will not be relieved from the suffering, but they even suffer more because of the cultural setting in which they live.

I personally believe that a decade would be insufficient to resolve these differences, which continue to plague our communities through the outburst of violent conflict. Violence will definitely continue to go on, deep into the new century. Therefore, the struggle against violence should not be stopped after the DOV program of WCC has come to an end. It is only just the beginning and must be continued until the establishment of peace in the global world becomes a reality. The WCC call for a decade to overcome violence must be supported at least for the sake of humanity and human values.

2. Nature and Root Causes of Conflict

2.1 Conflict is by nature dynamic. Conflicts that are not dealt with properly can grow and become more complicated and complex. Participants in the conflict can also grow in number, involving more people or parties than the original conflict, making the solution to the problem even more difficult. Yet conflict is a normal thing. Everybody experiences it - family, organization, community, etc. No one has ever escaped conflict. So conflict is actually a normal thing. It is not a sign of failure. Conflict in one sense can be dangerous, namely, when conflict is not resolved in time or if it becomes a protracted conflict. To admit that we have conflict can be dangerous. However, denying the existence of conflict can be more dangerous because it can mean that it will linger unresolved. Then it can explode at one time or another. Conflict is therefore a danger and an opportunity at the same time. On the one hand, conflict is dangerous when it is suppressed and not dealt with properly. It can become explosive. On the other hand, conflict can be an opportunity for change, transformation. It can be an opportunity for change to a better situation or better life, especially when it is well managed, resolved, and transformed.


2.2 Conflict generally has its root causes on the following:²

1. Unjust or unequal distribution of resources, which may involve land, water, food, money and other facilities. Unequal or unjust distribution of power can be a source of conflict. Conflicts about material resources are normally obvious to identify and often lend themselves well to straightforward bargaining. Occasionally, however, although the parties appear to be fighting for a resource, the real conflict is about something else, maybe relationships or psychological needs of either or both parties.

2. Different interests and needs, perceived or real, can also become a source of conflict, especially if there is competition. Important and powerful human needs for such things as identity, respect or participation are often at the heart of conflicts that appear to be contests for material things. These needs can be physical or psychological. "Often long-term resolution of a conflict that is focused on resources depends as much on meeting the interests or needs of the people involved as on dividing the resources."³

3. Conflict of values may appear due to differences in ideologies or differing standards in evaluation of behavior or ideas, negotiable day-to-day values and religious beliefs or values. Life experiences and faith perspectives form values and beliefs. Since any challenge to a person's values is often seen as a threat to one's identity, conflicts involving values are usually most difficult to resolve.

4. Information, true, wrong or distorted, may become the source of serious conflict. The conflict in Ambon, in the Maluku Islands of Indonesia, was triggered by wrong information. Rumor is a form of distorted information that can cause conflict. In various cases, the parties do not have sufficient information, or even the same information, about a situation. "Gathering and clarifying facts can go a long way toward easing tensions. In other situations, parties interpret the data in differing ways or assign different levels of importance to the same data."⁴

5. Conflict can also be the result of strong emotions, poor communication, stereotyping, misperception and repetitive negative behavior. In other words, human relationship can become a source of conflict.

6. Social and organizational structures determine who has access to power or resources, who is given respect, and who has the power to make decisions. Unjust social or organizational structures that allow unequal or unfair distribution of power within that social or organizational structure may cause similar conflict.

2.3 It is important to discern what type of conflict the parties are involved in. If we carefully look at various conflicts currently going on in Asia, we see that they often involve not only one issue but many issues that are usually interrelated. Understanding causes of conflicts can help mediators decide on appropriate strategies for handling the conflict effectively.⁵

2.4 From our experience we can identify several types of conflict depending on the nature of the conflict itself. There is conflict between individuals having disagreements. There is also conflict between communities, also usually known as horizontal conflict. These horizontal conflicts can also be distinguished as ethnic conflict and religious conflict. Some conflicts involve both ethnic as well as religious differences, and thus can be classified as ethno-religious conflicts. Another form of community conflict is when a certain community (a group of people) is in conflict with the government. This type of conflict is generally categorized as vertical conflict. Vertical conflict can happen between a local community and a local government, or between particular local communities against the central government.

3. Handling Conflicts

There are various approaches to bring solution to a conflict.⁶

3.1 Negotiation is a method of resolving conflicts between disputing parties without the help of a third party. When the parties to a conflict have come to some sort of understanding that the conflict must somehow be solved, they are willing to negotiate and resolve their differences. Their willingness to resolve differences does not necessarily imply that they admit their faults. They simply agree to negotiate the solution that should be acceptable to both sides. The negotiation can be done directly by both parties, without any other party involved in the negotiation. Therefore there is no third party involved.

3.2 Conciliation is another way of transforming conflict without the assistance of a third party. It is an approach to solving a conflict at the initiative of one party. The initiator of conciliation does not necessarily admit any mistake or fault but is willing to assume part of the blame of the conflict in order to solve their problems and find solution to their disputes. Conciliation is usually done at the initiative of the party who does not feel threatened by such an approach.

3.3 Mediation is a method of transforming conflict through reconciliation with the help of a third party or mediator(s). Mediation can be done only when the conflicting parties are ready to negotiate for a solution. The mediator acts as facilitator of the negotiation, to bridge the communication between conflicting parties. The mediator must be acceptable to all parties to the conflict in order to facilitate their negotiation. The mediator must be trusted by both sides to the conflict and, thus, must be impartial. The mediator does not take sides, and should never indicate any sign of partiality. Usually a mediator must have a reputation of personal integrity, a track record of ability to negotiate. In the process of mediation, the mediator does not take decision or offer solution to the conflict. The solution must come from or be proposed by the parties to the conflict themselves, and must be agreed upon by both sides. A win-win solution is usually the result of any mediation, in order to bring reconciliation to the parties in conflict.

3.4 Arbitration is a method of resolving conflict with the help of a third party who makes the decision. Like the mediator, the arbitrator's function is to help conflicting parties resolve their differences. The arbitrator also acts as a bridge for communication between the disputing parties. However, unlike the mediator, the arbitrator must make decision on solving the conflict. The arbitrator is expected to render the decision, after listening to and considering all arguments. Arbitrators must also be impartial, which means that they do not take sides. But after listening and considering all the arguments presented, through their wisdom and expertise, arbitrators must make decision on the solution to disputes. All sides to the conflict must accept the decisions of an arbitrator. However, it does not mean that the result is a win-win solution. It can be a win-loose situation. Therefore one party may feel that the decision is unjust.

3.5 Litigation is another method of resolving conflict. It is a way of resolving disputes through the judicial system or court of law. Any party to the conflict can bring their case to the court of law, through the specified standard procedures. The judge of the court is the decision-maker in the disputes. The decision of the court or the court's ruling must be based solely on the basis of the Law and on justice. The decision of the court is binding in the sense that it has legal power to be enforced. Of course there are different levels of courts. The decision of a lower court can be appealed to the higher court, until there are no more possibilities of appeal. In such a case, the decision of the highest court (Supreme Court) is binding to all and enforceable by the law enforcement office.

3.6 Legislation is another method of conflict resolution through legal authority, resorting to legal codes.⁷ When all other methods have been tried and are unsuccessful in resolving a conflict, a new legislation can be applied to bring an end to the conflict. Such a solution usually involves a large-scale community conflict, which is either horizontal or vertical conflict. The legislative body can pass a new law, which will bring solution to a particular conflict. This type of solution, however, does not guarantee that all parties to the conflict will accept the solution. The case of the new law on the special autonomy of the Province of Nangroe Aceh Darussalam in Indonesia is an example par excellence. Because of the protracted conflict between the Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka - GAM) and the Government of Indonesia for many years, the National Parliament which is the legislative body, passed a new law giving the province a very special autonomy, including even the application of the Islamic Shariah law. This new law does not apply to other provinces in Indonesia. Nevertheless, it does not stop the FAM/GAM from continuing the fight against the government, and the government's continuing harsh suppression of such a separatist movement.

3.7 Conflict intervention is always difficult, especially when the parties to the conflict are not ready to resolve their differences. Conflict interveners must be trusted by both (all) sides to the conflict and must be able to act impartially. Once the facilitator of a conflict shows sign of partiality, or is perceived to be taking sides with either of the conflicting parties, the facilitator will immediately lose the trust of the parties. It is therefore necessary for the facilitator to have unquestionable personal integrity and to be able to maintain impartiality throughout the negotiation and dialogues between disputants.

3.8 Community conflicts in our Asian region are complex. Most of these violent conflicts have been going on for some time. Therefore, the conflicting parties themselves are not able to easily solve these protracted conflicts. In many cases, even after so many direct negotiations, no solution was agreed upon. Many dialogues among parties to the conflict, assisted by mediators, have come to some sort of conclusion and agreements. However, these agreements did not last. In such a situation, it can be discerned that although the parties in direct conflict have been represented properly in the dialogues, still some of the stakeholders have not been taken into consideration in the final solution to the conflict. Most stakeholders who are not directly involved in the negotiation felt that their interests and concerns have not been sufficiently addressed. Therefore, these stakeholders are not ready to resolve their differences and will make any effort to prolong the conflict. Mediated solution usually is better than the solution by arbitration because it comes from the conflicting parties themselves rather than from the mediator. The function of the mediator is only to facilitate dialogue between the parties to the conflict so that dialogue can take place in a safe environment, free from pressures and intimidation. The mediator only facilitates either at the request of the parties or at the request of a third party, but in either case always depending on the approval or agreement of the conflicting parties.

3.9 Conflict resolution is only the first step towards reconciliation and peace building. Conflict resolution is a means to stop conflicts, especially violent conflicts, so that further solution can be negotiated. In such a conflict resolution, the issue or issues that separate conflicting parties must be solved and dealt with. Conflict resolution usually does not take a very long time. It can be done in a very short time, depending on the scale of the conflict. In armed conflicts, a cease-fire is usually considered to be an adequate conflict resolution, but does not guarantee a lasting solution.

3.10 More than conflict resolution is conflict management. Conflict resolution is usually also called peacemaking. This means stopping the violent conflict and bringing back the peaceful situation. Peacemaking must be followed by peacekeeping. In this stage of development, conflict management requires that any possible outburst of conflict should be prevented. Therefore, the restoration of relationships, personal or human relationships among conflicting parties, becomes very important and necessary. Thus, conflict management requires different types of skills and capacities than the skill required in conflict resolution. Restoring good relationship is not easy and takes much longer time than just stopping the conflict or resolving the dispute. Peacekeeping can take a few years in order for complete reconciliation to take place.

3.11 After peacekeeping has been properly maintained, the next step is conflict transformation. Conflict transformation is the final step in conflict intervention. It is also called the peace-building phase of the process. The purpose of resolving the conflict must be the transformation of the conflict. Conflict needs to be transformed to become an opportunity to build peace among conflicting communities. Therefore conflict transformation requires that all unjust structural conditions that were the sources of conflict be changed into a more just structure. This structural transformation that is required in peace-building takes a much longer period of time. It is the end or goal of the conflict intervention.

3.12 The beginning of the twenty-first century has seen so many conflicts among nations of the world. The question is: will these conflicts of nations continue or will they be resolved?

The last century, the twentieth century, saw two World Wars which brought more suffering not only to human beings but also to nature and the environment. War machinery requires exploitation of natural resources to such an extent that it endangers the ecology and threatens all living beings. The destruction of the environment as the result of unchecked and unlimited exploitation of natural resources will therefore become a global catastrophe.